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Abstract
Digital revolution reforms the structure of markets by changing communication systems. Information of demand has become to be more influential on the distribution of goods and services. Before the digital revolution, the corporation has dominated the economic system by using one way communication mechanism. It is demonstrated that digital revolution partially reforms economic scheme to construct a two way communication mechanism. In this digital economic scheme the corporation is supposed to communicate with inside, outside and external stakeholders. We assume that innovation of ICT lowers transaction cost between the corporation and the outside stakeholder. This impact increases total stakeholders that the corporation need to communicate and enhances the weight of the outside stakeholders. Digital economies displace a decentralized system into the established centralized market economies.
Keywords
Decentralized system, Digital Economies, External Stakeholder, Inside Stakeholder, Outside Stakeholder, Transaction Costs
1. Introduction
Regarding the scope of markets activities globalized economies have brought benefits from enlarging scales of markets. Innovation of intelligent technologies beginning from the last decade of the 20th century has been decreasing costs of globalization for many corporations. Digital economies stimulate to develop global economies by raising the net benefit of global market economies. Tanaka (2019b) argues that innovation of ICT changes the structure of stakeholders. Innovation of ICT helps corporation appreciably respond to needs of each consumer and integrate many stakeholders cooperatively. This innovation diversifies connections of stakeholders to form supply and demand in the market. Eventually, the structural change of the market is expected to influence revolutionary on the social system. We should explore how this innovation affects not only supply and demand systems but also sustainability of societies. This investigation complementally develops the analyses on the decentralized social system of sustainability by Tanaka (2019a) and (2019b). Transaction costs in digital economies are defined by theoretical expressions. This paper reconstructs the traditional theory of industrial organization developed by Williamson (1975), (1986), (1990) and others to explore digital economies and mathematically makes clear how the structural reform of stakeholders influences sustainability of communities.
This paper is organized as follows. 2. expresses the structure of stakeholders to explore the digital economies. This section presents that digital revolution enlarges scope of the two way communication. This revolution is assumed to lower the transaction cost regarding outside stakeholder. 3. demonstrates that this revolution increases the total number of stakeholders and raises relative rate of outside stakeholder.
2. Theoretical Framework of Digital Economies
Tanaka (2019a) comparatively explores influences of one way and two way communication for the sustainable mechanism. The one way communication scheme is efficient to convey large products and information acceding to top down procedure. Centralized scheme is exhibited by the one way communication mechanism. However, this communication scheme is not suitable to convey bottom up information. On the other hand, the two way communication scheme is appropriate to improve the facility of decentralized scheme. Tanaka (2019b) theoretically demonstrates that the decentralized scheme expresses lower economic production but obtains lesser social welfare losses than the centralized scheme. Tanaka (2019b) notices that evolution of digital economies displaces two way communication scheme in a large scale into the centralized constructed market economies. By exploring two way communication scheme, we could make clear some features of digitalizing societies.
We should provide some notations previously to proceed analysis. Stakeholders are divided into the stakeholders with market transactions and external stakeholders to obtain no economic relations. The former consists of inside and outside stakeholders. The inside stakeholders are represented by alliance members and stock owners and defined to obtain stronger or more intimate connections with the corporation than the outside stakeholders. The outside stakeholders are defined to have the market transactions with the corporation[2] and to obtain benefits exclude inside stakeholders from market related transactions. Globalization increases both outside and external stakeholders. In addition, the digital revolution enlarges outside stakeholders more rapidly than inside stakeholders[3].
Figure 1 exhibits the structure of stakeholders in digital economies. A to G represent stakeholders and ① and ② denote corporations. A to D have trusty relation with corporations ① and ② in the framework of market organization and are classified as inside stakeholders. Digital revolution inspires corporations ① and ② to proceed cooperation and improves two way communication in the inside stakeholders. Digital economies improve efficiency in communication between stakeholders E,F,H and corporations. Before the digital revolution external stakeholders are assumed to be E to H. After the revolution the external stakeholders except G turn into outside stakeholders. Figure 1 illustrates how digital revolution creates outside stakeholders. Stakeholder G is separated from communication of the market organization and receives external effects of the organization.
Figure 1 Structure of Stakeholders in Digital Economies
3. Digital Revolution and Outside Stakeholder
Figure
1 explicitly exhibits the effect of the digital revolution on stakeholder
structure. In this paper we assume that digital revolution partially reforms
centralized supply systems into decentralized scheme. Tanaka (2019b) describes
notations for theoretical analyses as follows. The corporation performs
production activity 
and obtains the
net private profit 
brings relations
with 
stakeholders. It takes the
payment 
for the
stakeholder 
. stakeholders are
divided into inside stakeholders, 1,
outside
stakeholders,
external
stakeholders ,
Stakeholder 
has evaluation
function 
for performance
of the corporation. In digital economies two way scheme could not allow each
stakeholder i to free ride benefits of network. The stakeholder i
needs to provide contribution 
to improve the
network system.
We
formalize theoretically the objective function NB
by net benefit in
the digital revolution
the expression
(1)[4].
denote
weights of evaluation for the inside and outside stakeholders
The corporation
is assumed to share larger interest with the inside stakeholders than with
outside stakeholders. Innovation of ICT decreases this communication gapes. It
is assumed that raising effort
of any
stakeholders i could improve communication environment surrounding the
corporation. When we employ the notation 
we simply express
the above argument by 
Although Tanaka
(2019b) provides optimal condition of 
this paper
explores how innovation transforms the structure of
stakeholders.
Any
inside stakeholder i (
might be supposed
to enhance the trusty connection with the corporation as the production
increases. 
is an increasing
function of corporation
roduction 
It is assumed
that is written to be
independent of the total effort
The effect of
communication is analyzed formally by using coefficients 
the inequality 
holds for all 
When
we take no transaction cost with the stakeholder, the weight for the
stakeholder is equal to one in the expression (1). If the corporation takes the
transaction costs with the inside, the outside and the external stakeholders by 
he transaction
costs are written by
=1
The
corporation maximizes net benefit function (1) with 
⋯,
. The first order
conditions of maximization are written by (2),(3),(4)[5].
To compare with (3) and (4), the contribution of the corporation on the external stakeholders is expressed formally by
(6)
To focus on the evolutional feature of digitalization, we assume that innovation of ICT makes stakeholders more openly or freely to move among three classes of stakeholders. We formally state Assumption 1.
Assumption
1.
Stakeholder i would like to move from one to another class to obtain more
payment 
We consider that inside stakeholders are strongly connected with each other and that they are independent of the digital revolution. We present optimal payments of stakeholders (3), (4) and (5) by Figure 2. Marginal evaluations of inside and outside stakeholders are denoted
 |
by
curves AD and BC. 
is expressed by
curve GG’. Digital revolution to increase y lowers 
and moves
downwardly EE’ to FF’. Digital revolution raises payments of outside
stakeholder 
to
Supposing that
the payments 
of external and
inside stakeholders are constant in the digital revolution, to behave as
outside stakeholders is more attractive for other types of stakeholders. In
particular, enlargement of internet services and sharing businesses promote to
increase outside stakeholders.
3. Concluding Remarks
In
this paper, we argue that the transaction costs to be redefined in digital
economies are an efficient method to explore the digital revolution. This paper
makes clear that increasing outside stakeholders means enlargement of total
stakeholders for the corporation to need to communicate. It is possible in this
process that relative advantage of inside stakeholder lowers against outside
stakeholder. Although many inside stakeholders might move into outside
stakeholders, shareholder value approach by Tirole (2001) indicates that some
inside stakeholders remain under the condition 
. However rising
shareholder value possibly raises 
for shrinking
inside stakeholders. Considering external stakeholders, we could not conclude
that the digital revolution could mitigate diversity of income distribution.
Tanaka (2019a) indicates that decentralized scheme is needed to solve diversity
problems.
References:
Rifkin, J. (2014), The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The internet of Things, The Collaborative Commons, and The Eclipse of Capitalism. St. Martin’s Press, New York.
Tanaka, H. (2016), “The Sustainability Theorem in the ESG Mechanism.” Long Finance and London Accord, pp,1-29. https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/sustainable-futures/london-accord/reports/the-sustainability-theorem-in-the-esg-mechanism/ Accessed 30 August 2019
Tanaka,H. (2017), “Sustainability of Global Communities and Regional Risk Governance”, Asia Pacific Journal of Regional Science 1, pp.639-653.
Tanaka, H. (2018), “Mechanism of Sustainability and Structure of Stakeholders in Regions, “Financial Forum, Vol 7 (1), pp.1-12.
Tanaka,H.(2019a), “Rehabilitation of the Decentralization in the Centralizing Process of Global Communities, “Journal of Global Issues and Solutions, Vol.19(3), may-june,pp.1-18.
Tanaka,H.(2019b), “Innovation on the Digital Economies and Sustainability of the Global Communities,” Annals of social sciences & management studies, Juniper 4( 2), pp.1-10.
Tanaka,H.(2019c),”Sustainable Governance of Marine Stakeholders,”Oceanography & Fisheries Open Access Journal, Juniper 11(1),pp.1-4.
Tirole J. (2001), Corporate Governance. Econometrica, 68(1), pp.1-35.
Williamson, O.E. (1975), Markets and Hierarchies :Analysis and Antitrust Implication. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Williamson, O.E.(1986), Economic Organization: Firms, Markets and Policy Control, Wheatsheaf Books, Brighton, UK.
Williamson, O.E. (ed), (1990), Industrial Organization. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK
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